A metacognitive approach typically involves students applying metacognitive strategies to respond to clear and explicit learning goals which have either been set by the teacher or identified by the student themselves. Light What didnt work? and McGuire, S. (2016). Learners who use metacognitive strategies are likely to be able to achieve more. 0000141099 00000 n Use your browser's incognito or private browsing mode to avoid participating. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 11(4), 236246. The Journal of Special Education, 26(2), 162-180. Creating a supportive classroom environment After the historic disruption of the COVID-19 pandemic, most schools are back open worldwide but education is still in recovery assessing the damage done and lessons learned. !/G?WnYju57wy3~{V9u:">ZU?VsOC^ma9>y_= AO)Ar 2017). Ericsson KA. Others have questioned whether anonymity impairs the development of cognitive and interpersonal development by limiting the collaborative nature of peer assessment (Strijbos and Wichmann 2018). Self-testing should be an integral part of your study sessions so that have a clear understanding of what you do and dont know. However, this was outside the scope of the current study but a useful direction for further research. Veenman and Spaans 2005) believe that metacognitive skills do not emerge until a child is 8 to 10 years old. 0000164599 00000 n There is, however, a strong theoretical basis for examining effects separately at different education levels (primary, secondary, tertiary), because of the large degree of heterogeneity across such a wide span of learning contexts (e.g., pedagogical practices, intellectual and social development of the students). Journal of Educational Computing Research, 51(2), 233256. KWL chart 0000197163 00000 n Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 40(5), 641665. Studies were dichotomously classified as to whether a specific rubric, assessment script, or scoring system was provided to students. Teacher, self and peer evaluation of lesson plans written by preservice teachers. This CRT test had only three questions; Frederick27 has used up to eight CRT problems in some studies, which may result in greater reliability. Students need to understand what their learning objectives are so that they can plan how to achieve them. Learners, especially those above primary age, may have become unused to talking aloud to themselves in the classroom. Metacognitive regulation refers to what learners do about learning. (2017) argue that the cognitive processes involved in peer assessment, such as evaluating, explaining, and suggesting, similarly play out in online and offline environments. Writing can help you organize your thoughts and assess what you know. Studies that only provided basic instructions to students to conduct the peer feedback were coded as freeform. 1. System 2 is the more analytical, deliberate and rational side to the thinking process. Here is a printable list of interesting books, articles and websites on the topics that we have looked at. While these assessment types differ substantially in terms of their cognitive complexity and comprehensiveness, each has shown at least some evidence of impactive academic performance (e.g., Sanchez et al. 2010a; Liu et al. (919) 962-7710 9Bq@D=c9p' k>KYZ1+b)2oX?@9>|r|$fOM=5y3 4iaOC= yv3fP)` hbbg`b``3 @ ] endstream endobj 334 0 obj <>/Metadata 20 0 R/OpenAction 335 0 R/Pages 19 0 R/StructTreeRoot 22 0 R/Type/Catalog/ViewerPreferences<>>> endobj 335 0 obj <> endobj 336 0 obj >/PageWidthList<0 595.276>>>>>>/Resources<>/ExtGState<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageC]/Properties<>/XObject<>>>/Rotate 0/StructParents 0/TrimBox[0.0 0.0 595.276 841.89]/Type/Page>> endobj 337 0 obj <> endobj 338 0 obj <> endobj 339 0 obj <> endobj 340 0 obj <>stream Review of Educational Research, 68(3), 249-276. For example, some assessment characteristics may be important when teaching writing but not mathematics. The effects of revision instruction on eighth graders' persuasive writing (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), University of Maryland, Maryland. *Wang, X.-M., Hwang, G.-J., Liang, Z.-Y., & Wang, H.-Y. Croskerry P. Context is everything or how could I have been that stupid? The results indicate that peer assessment is more effective than no assessment and teacher assessment and not significantly different in its effect from self-assessment. Educational Psychology Review MetaMeta meansabout,after, orbeyond. *van Ginkel, S., Gulikers, J., Biemans, H., & Mulder, M. (2017). Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(1), 82. (iii) When evaluating their performance, the learner can ask: How well did I do?, Did I get the results I expected?, Is there anything I still dont understand?, What could I do differently next time? Do they have any questions that remain unanswered. 0000414949 00000 n A KWL chart will help you to engage your learners in a new topic, activate their prior knowledge and support them in monitoring their learning. I found that the presentation had a significantly positive impact on student study behavior, but the effect diminished over time. Often the research literature makes somewhat broad claims about the possible benefits of peer assessment. Moreover, other important variables such as fidelity of treatment were almost never reported in the included manuscripts. Developmental change in children's assessment of intellectual competence. Peer assessment between students in colleges and universities. Generally speaking, primary education refers to the ages of 612, secondary education refers to education from 1318, and tertiary education is undertaken after the age of 18. These studies have typically compared the formative effect of peer assessment with either teacher assessment (e.g., Chaney and Ingraham 2009; Sippel and Jackson 2015; van Ginkel et al. Two students had previously been exposed to the CRT and were excluded. Studies were coded as to whether the students acted as peer assessors, assessees, or both assessors and assessees. - to reflect upon and connect the ideas presented to other domains of knowledge. Educational Research Review, 20, 2434. Ask your learners to think about What do I know? 1. Vancouver Island University. Secondly, the assessment could be delivered in any form (e.g., written, verbal, online), but needed to be distinguishable from peer-coaching/peer-tutoring. In other words, it is the disposition to resist reporting the response that first comes to mind.24 As explained by the CRT inventor Shane Frederick: The three items on the CRT are easy in the sense that their solution is easily understood when explained, yet reaching the correct answer often requires the suppression of an erroneous answer that springs impulsively to mind. In his study, Frederick has shown a reduction in intuitive answers as the questions precede from question 1 to 3 and also a gender bias with better performance among the male population.24 The CRT has also been used in a group of judges in the United States.25 Judges are thought to be predominantly intuitive thinkers, picking up on intuitive clues that lead them to reach conclusions that they later rationalize. 0000073201 00000 n Watch this video of primary school students using the reciprocal teaching approach in the classroom. ScaffoldingThe teacher provides appropriate guidance and support to enable learners to build on their current level of understanding progressively to acquire confidence and independence in using new knowledge or skills. The use of scoring rubrics for formative assessment purposes revisited: A review. 2018). A., & Ingraham, L. R. (2009). European Journal of Psychology of Education, 33(1), 117143. Do peer reviews help improve student writing abilities in an EFL high school classroom? *Li, L., & Steckelberg, A. Journal of Statistics Education, 18(2). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Department of Education, University of Oxford, Oxford, England, Kit S. Double,Joshua A. McGrane&Therese N. Hopfenbeck, You can also search for this author in What questions do you have? The Journal of Social Psychology, 127(4), 329338. Teachers can ask questions to prompt learners to monitor the strategies that they are using. Studies were coded dichotomously as to whether they involved only a single peer assessment occasion or, alternatively, whether students provided/received peer feedback on multiple occasions. Here is an example of a KWL chart for you to use: (2017) on peer grading found a benefit for non-tertiary students, albeit based on a relatively small number of studies compared with the current meta-analysis. What did work? The judges were also more likely to respond with intuitive responses, in that only two thirds of the judges (compared to 90% of the medical students), gave the right (deliberative) answer to one or more of the CRT questions. The Impact of Peer Assessment on Academic Performance: A Meta-analysis of Control Group Studies, $$ d=\frac{{\overline{\mathrm{X}}}_2-{\overline{\mathrm{X}}}_1}{S_{\mathrm{pooled}}} $$, $$ {S}_{\mathrm{pooled}}=\frac{\sqrt{\left({n}_1-1\right){s}_1^2+\left({n}_2-1\right){s}_2^2\ }}{n_1+{n}_2-2} $$, $$ {V}_d=\frac{n_1+{n}_2}{n_1{n}_2}+\frac{d^2}{2\left({n}_1+{n}_2\right)} $$, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09510-3, http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/escalc. At the same time, the percentage of intuitive answers decreased, while incorrect responses ranged between 3 to 13%. After obtaining ethical approval from Research Ethics Committee of the Cork Teaching Hospitals, medical students in the School of Medicine, University College Cork, from Years 2 & 3 (pre-clinical), and Years 4 (in clinical practice) of a 5-year Medical Degree course were approached to participate in this study. Fyfe, E. R., & Rittle-Johnson, B. A sensitivity analysis indicated that none of the results varied as a function of the chosen rho. Ive done that workshop every year since then. Does the classroom environment support metacognitive practices? 180 students in total, of whom 130 (72%) completed the survey. Metacognitive talk involves a person saying out loud what they are thinking while they are carrying out a task. 0000177081 00000 n 0000049902 00000 n Peers are defined as individuals at similar (i.e., within 12 grades) or identical education levels. Fine-tuning some resistant rules for outlier labeling. ( 0000079056 00000 n PubMedGoogle Scholar. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 13(5), 373-388. The outcomes from the individual three questions, by pre-clinical and clinical students, are presented in Table 1 and Figure 1. Although the feedback from the presentations was very positive, I wanted to conduct a comprehensive evaluation of the impact on student thinking and study behavior. In the video below, Lee Davis (Deputy Director of Professional Development) discusses each of the levels in more detail. 2. *Sun, D. L., Harris, N., Walther, G., & Baiocchi, M. (2015). 0000186922 00000 n Studies were classified based on whether the peer assessment was anonymous or identified. Norman GR, Eva KW. In psychology, the term "cognition" is usually used within an information processing view of an individual's psychological functions, and such is the same in cognitive engineering. You will be able to take stock of what you already know, what you need to work on, and how best to approach learning new material. Risk of publication bias was assessed by inspecting the funnel plots (see Fig. While it was possible to determine whether sub-groups differed significantly from each other by determining whether the confidence interval around their effect sizes overlap, sub-groups analysis may also produce biased estimates when heteroscedasticity or multicollinearity are present (Steel and Kammeyer-Mueller 2002). Morris, S. B. Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). Several narrative reviews have argued for the positive formative effects of peer assessment (e.g., Black and Wiliam 1998a; Topping 1998; van Zundert et al. Rubrics and revision: What are the effects of 3 RD graders using rubrics to self-assess or peer-assess drafts of writing? It is a higher order thinking that enables understanding, analysis, and control of your cognitive processes. Ive given the presentation every fall since then. CognitionThe mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and the senses. However, there were few studies where feedback was freeform (n = 9, k =29). *Erfani, S. S., & Nikbin, S. (2015). Anonymity as an instructional scaffold in peer assessment: its effects on peer feedback quality and evolution in students perceptions about peer assessment skills. Birney, D. P., Beckmann, J. F., Beckmann, N., & Double, K. S. (2017). Up to half of the medical students demonstrated full or partial reliance on System 1 (intuitive) thinking in response to these analytical questions. Often meta-analyses include multiple effect sizes from the same sample (e.g., the effect of peer assessment on two different measures of academic performance). A 2014 study by Harvard also confirmed that reflecting on ones work improves job performance. 0000001952 00000 n Although it is still far from being the dominant outcome measure in research on formative practices, many of these recent studies have examined the effect of peer assessment on objective measures of academic performance (e.g., Gielen et al. Reflection is a fundamental part of the plan-monitor-evaluate process. This raises the possibility that the benefit of peer assessment comes more from assessing, rather than being assessed (Usher 2018). Research shows that improving a learners metacognitive practices may compensate for any cognitive limitations they have. become more automatic) as proficiency and skill are acquired and pattern matching has replaced effortful serial processing. questions. Effects of a mixed-mode peer response on student response behavior and writing performance. Studies were classified as having teacher assessment on the basis of a specific reference to teacher feedback being provided. Many of the methods described are about self-testing (e.g., thinking aloud, using writing, taking notes from memory) because they help you discern what you do and dont actually know. Teaching Sociology,43(3), 201213. Knings, K. D., van Zundert, M., & van Merrinboer, J. J. G. (2019). Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 19(4), 100-111. Below are some suggestions for metacognitive questions you can ask yourself. 0000078446 00000 n "U+ See above for a more detailed description. The Impact of Peer Assessment on Academic Performance: A Meta-analysis of Control Group Studies. 2015). As only two studies allocated students to conditions at the year/semester level, we combined these studies with the studies allocated at the classroom level (i.e., as quasi-experiments). H\0{?.w/h4&]EhHl%54q}u|.4KAVn}7xivqrox&Cgc0Opk1~?G^mzMs]5KbK?.o[fo{n.;?1M\_%PM"b[y6dIY#%s\1W^/2m6oL+2m6GzGzGzGzGzGSOa?SOY`g@?@?@?4fe-E-e-E-e-E-e-E-e-E-Cf-E-eRu+EW^cWW^ooooo/J~1gk +gN#q4qL|dNp\Z+' ( endstream endobj 351 0 obj <>stream It describes how learners monitor and control their cognitive processes. There are different types of mnemonic. - the learners knowledge of particular tasks (e.g. However, they may fail to recognise which strategy is the most effective for a particular learning situation. Vygotsky developed the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development. A Stanford researchers 15-minute study hack lifts B+ students into the As. b bt}LOys:g5r w~PsT;4u6ds6#)KX1 i(mW!9fK7E~kwU{WO%K }:R[$DNw06{dzG$l5`}-Bjo % Recently, researchers have increasingly advocated for the role of assessment in promoting learning in educational practice (Wiliam 2018). Overall, the results suggest that there is a positive effect of peer assessment on academic performance in primary, secondary, and tertiary students. These findings are consistent with current theories of formative assessment and instructional best practice and provide strong empirical support for the continued use of peer assessment in the classroom and other educational contexts. A key challenge for teachers is being able to recognise how well their students understand their own learning processes. Metacognition is often considered to have two dimensions: metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation. 2017). 2007). 0000084279 00000 n 0000008221 00000 n A., Wang, V. Z., Cervato, C., & Ridky, R. W. (2009). What are the relationships between these two concepts. A meta-regression with tertiary students as the reference category indicated that there was no significant difference in effect size as a function of education level. For example, if you are working through a math problem, its helpful to pause as you go and think about why you are doing each step, and how you knew that it followed from the previous step. Metacognition allows people to take charge of their own learning. The percentage of students in a study that were female was recorded. 0000153505 00000 n Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Journal of Second Language Writing, 18(1), 3043. The literature search was carried out on 8 June 2018 using PsycInfo, Google Scholar, and ERIC. A major limitation of the current results is that they cannot adequately distinguish between the effect of assessing versus being an assessee. From the 1970s, theoretical models describing how we process information included a central executive which controls basic cognitive processes. Can we overcome the methodological schism? Due to the small frequency of this control condition, we ultimately classified them as no assessment controls. Just verbalizing your thoughts can help you make more sense of the material and internalize it more deeply. As such, we were able to look at the effect of each moderator across education levels and for each education level separately. I have trouble remembering dates in history) - to record ideas from a lesson, film, presentation, etc. A meta-regression indicated that the effect size was not significantly different when comparing peer assessment with teacher assessment, than when comparing peer assessment with no assessment (b = .02, 95% CI .26 to .31, p = .865). Assessment of professional behaviour in undergraduate medical education: Peer assessment enhances performance. While such evidence should not be discounted, the current findings also point to the need for better quantitative and experimental studies to test some of the assumptions embedded in these models. Graner, M. H. (1987). There are a number of misconceptions surrounding metacognition and the related construct self-regulated learning. *Rijlaarsdam, G., & Schoonen, R. (1988). Iranian university students experiences of and attitudes towards alternatives in assessment. 2010b). A., & MacArthur, C. A. 147154). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09510-3, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09510-3. For example, a students assignment was assessed by peers and this feedback was utilised to make revisions before it was graded by their teacher. van Zundert, M., Sluijsmans, D., & van Merrinboer, J. The Journal of Educational Research, 84(1), 2229. A large part of metacognition is actively monitoring ones own learning and making changes to ones own learning behaviours and strategies based on this monitoring. Look at your syllabus. (2014). Gorard, S. (2002). In addition to examining the correlation between peer and teacher grading, Sanchez et al. Proponents of peer assessment argue that it is an effective classroom technique for improving academic performance (Topping 2009). *Sadeghi, K., & Abolfazli Khonbi, Z. Previously, individual studies have argued for the importance of characteristics such as rubrics (Panadero and Jonsson 2013), anonymity (Bloom & Hautaluoma, 1987), and allowing students to practice peer assessment (Smith, Cooper, & Lancaster, 2002). Educational Technology Research and Development, 56(2), 181. 0000177194 00000 n 0000002340 00000 n However, given the extremely small number of studies where participants did not act as both assessees (n = 2) and assessors (n = 4), we did not perform a sub-groups analysis, as such analyses are unreliable with small samples (Fisher et al. In: Betsch T, Haberstroh S, editors. What can you do in the classroom to help and encourage your learners to progress to the next level? The Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) is a three-question test designed to measure respondents ability to activate metacognitive processes allowing them to switch to System 2 thinking. FOIA Your professor probably included a course schedule, reading list, learning objectives or something similar to give you a sense of how the course is structured. 2014a). The site is secure. Thinking about thinking is called Metacognition. Then take the time to fill in the areas you still have gaps and make a plan for how you might change your preparation next time. Self-regulationThe ability to monitor and control our own thoughts, emotions and behaviour. See more. 2001). Levels of metacognitive learners *Rudd II, J. The emphasis at Samford University is on excellence in undergraduate liberal arts education, and the videos are meant to help accomplish that. 0000078931 00000 n Do you spend a lot of time studying but feel like your hard work doesnt help your performance on exams? Google Scholar. Peers are often novices at providing constructive assessment and inexperienced learners tend to provide limited feedback (Hattie and Timperley 2007). We would like to show you a description here but the site wont allow us. 2010). When students become active doers of mathematics, the greatest gains of their mathematical thinking can be realized. *Ruegg, R. (2015). English Language Teaching, 8(4), 128141. 2017). The effect of peer assessment did not differ significantly when peer assessment included a written component (g = .35, p < .001) than when it did not (g = .20, p = .015) , b= .144, 95% CI .10 to .39, p = .241. The meta-analysis indicated that there was a significant positive effect of peer assessment on academic performance (g = 0.31, SE = .06, 95% CI = .18 to .44, p < .001). Learning by reviewing. What didnt go well? What could I do differently next time? 0000008974 00000 n Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 37(5), 513533. This will encourage learners to think more actively about where they are now, where they are going and how to get there. Creating a psychologically safe online space for a student-generated questions learning activity via different identity revelation modes. 1814 0 obj <>stream Using peer feedback to enhance student meaningful learning. The "id", "ego" and "super-ego" are the three parts of the "psychic apparatus" defined in Sigmund Freud's structural model of the psyche; they are the three theoretical constructs in terms of whose activity and interaction mental life is described.According to this model, the uncoordinated instinctual trends are encompassed by the "id", the organized realistic part of the psyche is the 1791 24 CONTACT US NYSED General Information: (518) 474-3852. Distribution theory for Glass's estimator of effect size and related estimators. will also be available for a limited time. By establishing a supportive learning environment that fosters and anticipates metacognitive practices, these practices will become an integral part of the learning process. Based on the funnel plots and a non-significant Eggers test of asymmetry (b = .886, p = .226), risk of publication bias was judged to be low, A funnel plot showing the relationship between standard error and observed effect size for the academic performance meta-analysis. McGuire, S.Y. The effects of the moderators reported here therefore need to be considered as overall averages that provide information about the extent to which the effect of a moderator generalises across domains. 0000047472 00000 n What could I do differently next time? The expert, a teacher for example, initially takes responsibility for monitoring progress, setting goals, planning activities and allocating attention for example. Ten Metacognitive Teaching Strategies. Indeed, experience, without feedback or reflection, can often be the fertile ground for the development of faulty thinking.21,22. Mnemonics Multilevel modeling: When and why. While these feedback characteristics have been shown to affect the efficacy of peer assessment in individual studies, we find little evidence that they moderate the effect of peer assessment when analysed across studies. What do I want to know? More than two thirds of respondents (70%) got the second question right, with 22% getting the intuitive answer. Using focus groups to ask participants to explain the manner in which they went about solving each question would have answered this conundrum. Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods, 8(2), 26. KWL stands for: aI2@UYxV8_ Hogarth RM. Most studies on peer assessment have tended to focus on either students or teachers subjective perceptions of the practice rather than its effect on academic performance (e.g., Brown et al. Comparing meta-analytic moderator estimation techniques under realistic conditions. *Wong, H. M. H., & Storey, P. (2006). How can I allow time for learner self-reflection? The CRT has previously been used at an educational session at the Florida Conference of Circuit Judges in 2006.25 The medical students in the present study scored higher than the judges, correctly answering a mean of 2.02 of the CRT questions compared to 1.23 for the judges. Engaging in metacognition allows learners to recognize gaps in their knowledge or difficulty in acquiring new information, as well as to identify and integrate new knowledge into their existing cognitive framework. Image mnemonics use a visual reference to aid recall. A comparative study of peer and teacher feedback and of various peer feedback forms in a secondary school writing curriculum. An empirical review of anonymity effects in peer assessment, peer feedback, peer review, peer evaluation and peer grading. This video gives an overview of the information presented in the video series. Book When an individual is more dependent on System 1 thinking (for example, HALT: hungry, angry, tired or late or under conditions of illness, substance abuse or emotional distress), the accuracy of decision-making can be adversely affected.14 Nevertheless, there is evidence that System 1 thinking is an indispensable element of clinical decision-making in physician primary care.15,16 Although System 2 (analytical) thinking is more deliberate than System 1, the latter is not necessarily less capable. Do I need to try something different? Aware learners know about some of the kinds of thinking that they do such as generating ideas, finding evidence etc. Examination preparation, anxiety and examination performance in a group of adult students. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 126. Students can view the videos whenever and as many times as they want. While the current results provide an overall estimate of the efficacy of peer assessment in improving academic performance when compared to teacher and no assessment, it should be noted that these effects are averaged across a wide range of outcome measures, including science project grades, essay writing ratings, and end-of-semester exam scores. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 82(400), 11471149. 0000005621 00000 n Metacognition and Learning is the only journal that specializes in research on metacognition and self-regulation. Topping, K. (1998). 2015). (1998). (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), Amsterdam University, Amsterdam. Exploring the value of peer feedback in online learning for the provider. 333 103 We recruited the help of several students who happened to be taking summer classes, and I am grateful for their participation; especially to Rebecca, who did a great job with her role and provided her own note cards, and to Tyler, who, as a chemistry major, is not bad at math. Using metacognition improves students academic achievement across learning domains. The results were unchanged when education level was controlled for in the meta-regression. Additionally, meta-regressions examined the moderating effects of several feedback and educational characteristics (e.g., online vs offline, frequency, education level). Accessibility 1791 0 obj <> endobj (2014). *Olson, V. L. B. journal of. How does this information relate to what we learned last week? 2017; Wang et al. 2. A teacher plays no role in their learners metacognitive practice 1. When used alone, System 2 thinking can lead to poorer performance by slowing action processes down. The student uses their metacognitive strategies to plan, monitor and evaluate their own progress towards achieving the learning goals. A sensitivity analysis indicated that the effect size estimates did not differ with different values of rho. - the learners knowledge of different strategies that are available to them and when they are appropriate to the task (e.g. However, Whitebread and Pino Pasternak (2010) document a number of studies which indicate evidence of young childrens metacognitive abilities. The Journal of Educational Research, 73(4), 203-207. An ancestry search returned an additional 37 potentially relevant articles. In: Gilovich T, Griffin D, Kahneman D, editors. Atomic (Lang, 2010) With a sense of your desired results, you can then consider acceptable evidence of obtaining these results, the measures you use to determine whether a students performance meets the goals you have for them. 0000007958 00000 n Croskerry P. The importance of ognitive errors in diagnosis and strategies to minimize them. 0000129980 00000 n Worksheets handed out before receiving feedback prompt the learner to reflect on how they prepared for the exam including the study strategies they used. 0000009627 00000 n Here, we present a meta-analysis (54 studies, k = 141) of experimental and quasi-experimental studies that evaluated the effect of peer assessment on academic performance in primary, secondary, or tertiary students across subjects and domains. Which strategies will I use? Assessing may confer several distinct advantages such as drawing comparisons with peers work and increased familiarity with evaluative criteria. Peer assessment enhances student learning: The results of a matched randomized crossover experiment in a college statistics class. Peer assessment requires the communication (either written, verbal, or online) of task-relevant feedback, although the style of feedback can differ markedly, from elaborate written and verbal feedback to holistic ratings of performance. A voluntarily completed response was taken to indicate consent for participation. Cook, D. J., Guyatt, G. H., Ryan, G., Clifton, J., Buckingham, L., Willan, A., et al. 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