In this review, we described various fungi involved in the biodegradation of different types of plastic polymers and summarized recent studies on enzymes that are produced by various fungi for the biodegradation of plastics. Biodegradation is the property of a material that can be completely converted into water, CO 2, and biomass through the action of microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria. Int J Environ Sci Technol 10:13191324, Artham T, Doble M (2010) Biodegradation of physicochemically treated polycarbonate by fungi. They are also called catalases; peroxidases of fungi are regarded to be more efficient in converting lignin. Review on plastic wastes in marine environment - Biodegradation and biotechnological solutions. Genetic engineering could be a preferred strategy to enhance the ability of fungi in biodegradation of plastic polymers. MDPI Microorganisms 7:304, Bonhomme S, Cuer A, Delort A, Lemaire J, Sancelme M, Scott G (2003) Environmental biodegradation of polyethylene. Appl Environ Microbiol 3:678688, Carniel A, Valoni , Nicomedes J, Gomes ADC, Castro AMD (2017) Lipase from Candida antarctica (CALB) and cutinase from Humicola insolens act synergistically for PET hydrolysis to terephthalic acid. Springer, New York, pp. Process Biochem 59:8490. This enzymatic complex is produced mainly by wood-degrading fungi, such as basidiomycetes (Snchez 2009). Fungi easily adapt to severe environmental constraints and can be easily manipulated with different problems [15]. 1987). Biodegradation is the processing of plastic waste using microorganisms (Verma & Gupta 2019). 2009),Candida rugosawere degrading poly (butylene succinate-co-hexamethylene succinate) copolymer. Microbiol Biotechnol J 26:20762086, John Scheirs, Duane P (2003) Modern styrenic copolymers. Geotrichumspp., are identified by their aryl alcohol oxidases and Mn2+-oxidizing peroxidase enzymes and degrading polycarbonates (Romero et al. 2017). and transmitted securely. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Cutinase 2p fromArxula adeninivoransshowed enzymatic decomposition (hydrolysis/oxidation) of electrospun polycaprolactone fiber mats (Furukawa et al. 2016),Lasiodiplodia theobromae(SanaSheik et al. Fungi Cymatoderma dendriticum WM01, Ceriporia sp. Polyurethane, on the other hand, was degraded by four strains. Copyright 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. The difference between biodegradable and compostable is that in the case of compostable plastics, (1) the "degradation" process is activated through human intervention by placing the plastic in a composting setting or infrastructure and (2) the end residue will be classified as compost. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Front Microbiol 8:1792, Osma JF, Toca-Herrera JL, Rodrguez-Couto S (2010) Uses of laccases in the food industry. 15, Hofrichter M, Ullrich R (2006) Heme-thiolate haloperoxidases: versatile biocatalysts with biotechnological and environmental significance. Among all the mentioned approaches, biodegradation showed the most promising outcomes. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-012-9572-4, Milstein O, Gersonde R, Huttermann A, Chen MJ, Meister JJ (1992) Fungal biodegradation of lignopolystyrene graft copolymers. 1981; Heredia 2003). 2 0 obj 2017; Schwartz et al. Even more damaging is their impact on the aquatic ecosystems as they cause entanglement, ingestion and intestinal blockage in aquatic animals. Degradation of conventional plastic wastes in the environment: A review on current status of knowledge and future perspectives of disposal. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Abstract: Plastic is a broad name given to different polymers with high molecular weight, which can be degraded by various processes. statement and Compared with other degradation processes, the biodegradation process is the most effective and best way for plastic degradation due to its non-polluting mechanism, eco-friendly nature, and cost-effectiveness. CYP isoforms are anchored in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, having their active sites connected to both the cytosolic and membrane environments so they can uptake substrate from both surroundings (rejber et al. No biodegradation methods are absolute in the treatment of all textile dyes, which leads to structure-dependent degradation. An official website of the United States government. Concerns over sustainability and plastic pollution from traditional polymers have driven the rapid development of biodegradable polymers. In this context, bioplastics are categorized into three classes: 4.2.1. Degradation of polycarbonates is typical in-process due to its rigid structure and usually takes years. Thus, recent focus has been placed more on the potential of biological systems to degrade synthetic plastics. Peroxidases are enzymes that fall under the oxidoreductase class which catalyzes oxidationreduction reactions by the action of free radicals on compounds to form oxidized and polymerized compounds. 133161. 2003; Sen and Raut 2015). Poylm Polym Composit 29(5): 303310, Bergeret A, Ferry L, Ienny P (2009) Influence of the fibre/matrix interface on ageing mechanisms of glass fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites (PA-6,6, PET, PBT) in a hygrothermal environment. The biodegradation can be partial or complete. A report presented in Journal of basic microbiology suggested that Asia is the worlds highest plastic consumer (35%) with India being the lowest (5%). Aims: - To identify the most important environmental impacts of the coupled hospital wastewater pre-treatment with biological treatment by the fungus Trametes versicolor . 2008). The worldwide annual production of non-degradable plastic ranges from 350 to 400 million tons out of that yearly 513 million tons of waste plastic are released into oceans which damages the ecological environment. The current understanding of the roles played by actinomycetes, algae, bacteria, fungi and their enzymes in enhancing the degradation of synthetic plastics are reviewed, with special focus on their modes of action and probable enzymatic mechanisms. endobj Wiley, pp. J Inorg Biochem 183:117136, Thirunavukarasua K, Edwinolivera NG, DuraiAnbarasana S, Gowthamana MK, Iefujib H, Kamini NR (2008) Removal of triglyceride soil from fabrics by a novel lipase from Cryptococcussp. Cytochrome P450 family are heme-containing mono-oxygenases that are involved in catalyzing various enzymatic reactions (Shin et al. 2014),Penicillium funiculosum ATCC 9644, Trichoderma viride ATCC 13631, Paecilomyces variotii CBS 62866, Aspergillus niger (ATCC 6275)(Whitney 1996),Aureobasidium pullulans(Webb et al. Sanluis-Verdes A, Colomer-Vidal P, Rodriguez-Ventura F, Bello-Villarino M, Spinola-Amilibia M, Ruiz-Lopez E, Illanes-Vicioso R, Castroviejo P, Aiese Cigliano R, Montoya M, Falabella P, Pesquera C, Gonzalez-Legarreta L, Arias-Palomo E, Sol M, Torroba T, Arias CF, Bertocchini F. Nat Commun. Environ Sci Technol 37(19):44944499, Shimao M (2001) Biodegradation of plastics. They are in the form of solid or foamed, its chemical formula is (C8H8) n. PP is degraded by acetone, chlorinated solvents, and aromatic hydrocarbon solvents. These enzymes transfer electrons from organic substrates to molecular oxygen (laccases) by oxidationreduction reactions using H2O2 as an electron-accepting co-substrate or by epoxidation, aromatic preoxygenation, and sulfoxidation (Karich et al. CAS sp(Raaman et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2016.07.023, Chen S, Su L, Chen J, Wu J (2013) Cutinase: characteristics, preparation and application. PubMed [ 16] it was expected that fungi capable of degrading the plastic polymers would display a zone of clearance ('halo') around the growing cultures as a result of enzymatic plastic degradation by diffusing enzymes excreted by the fungal hyphae, or in the case of PE, grow on the plastic granules [ 21 ]. 77(17):60766084, Russell JR (2011) Biodegradation of polyester polyurethane by endophytic fungi. . As nondegradable plastics build up in the environment and cause increasing problems for disposal, this biodegradability could lead to increased use of PU. Ligninolytic enzymes, includes LiP, MnP, and laccase (Wu et al. Chemosphere 64:12431252, Krueger MC, Hofmann U, Moeder M, Schlosser D (2015) Potential of wood-rotting fungi to attack polystyrene sulfonate and its depolymerisation by Gloeophyllum trabeum via hydroquinone-driven Fenton chemistry. 2022 Oct 13;14(20):4299. doi: 10.3390/polym14204299. 2005). Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This demonstrates that some fungal species have a specialized effect against plastic debris biodegradation. In: Nyanhongo GS, Steiner W, Gbitz G (eds) Biofunctionalization of polymers and their applications. 2010). Plastics are resilient, non-reactive and most importantly, non-biodegradable. Plastics, ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. several samples such as pond, soil, hay, horse dung, and lichen. The maximum range of lignin peroxides are produced inAspergillus nigerand Aspergillus flavus (Bholay et al. A lipase enzyme extracted from the yeastCryptococcussp, exhibited hydrolysis of polybutylene succinate (PBS) and polybutylene succinate-co-adipate (PBSA) (Thirunavukarasua et al. 2016; Olicn-Hernndez et al. Incubation of the LDPE sheets was done for sixteen weeks at 37C and 28C for bacteria and . In this study, biodegrada Trametes versicolor, Pleurotus ostreatus, Streptomyces, P. ostreatus and T. pubescensproduce laccase that degrades polyethylene (Osma et al. This present review gives current knowledge regarding different species of fungi that are involved in the degradation of plastics by their different enzymatic mechanisms to degrade different forms of plastic polymers. Fungi are the dominant agents . Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Penicillium, Phanerochaetehave been reported for polyethylene degradation (Danso et al. They are / hydrolases or carboxylic ester hydrolases which were observed in plant pathogenic fungi, i.e.,Fusarium solani pisi(Kolattukudy and Brown 1975; Kolattukudy et al. In the place of other substrates, plastic films/sheets are used as substrate. Google Scholar, Eberl A, Heumann S, Brueckner T, Araujo R, Cavaco-Paulo A, Kaufmann F et al (2009) Enzymatic surface hydrolysis of poly(ethylene terephthalate) and bis(benzoyloxyethyl)terephthalate by lipase and cutinase in the presence of surface active molecules. The potentiality of fungi in biodegradation is known as mycoremediation. These elements can be as transition metals, such as Fe, Co (Weiland et al. Photodegradation involves continuous exposure of UV light from the sun or artificial source on plastic material which eventually incorporates oxygen molecules in between the structure which leads to breaking the complex polymers into simple molecules, while thermo-oxidative involves exposure of heat on the plastic polymers (Geweret et al. An enzyme that is similar to cutinase in function, i.e., isolated fromCryptococcussp. Therefore, it is essential to develop eco-friendly techniques to get rid of this plastic waste accumulation. 2020),Chaetomium globosum (ATCC 16021)(Vivi et al. 2018; Shin et al. Am Soc Microbiol Appl Environ Microbiol. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 91:739, Article andMucor spp. This research is funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness as part of the national project H2PHARMA, for the biodegradation of hospital wastewater by fungi. 3 0 obj 2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.03.012, Kint D, Muoz-Guerra S (1999) A review on the potential biodegradability of poly(ethylene terephthalate). 2001). Polypropylene belongs topartially crystalline polyolefins, mostly used polypropylene isisotactic. The biodegradation of plastics by bacteria and fungi proceeds differently under different soil conditions according to their properties. Table 2. Polym Degrad Stabil 94:13151324, Bhardwaj H, Gupta R, Tiwari A (2012) Microbial population associated with plastic degradation. Biodegradable and bio-based bioplastic 2007). Purpureocillium lilacinumandCurvularia senegalensisare a group of fungi that degradepoly (butylene succinate-co-adipate)and polyurethane(Yamamoto-Tamura et al. 2010). Google Scholar, Kumar S, Das ML, Rebecca J, Sharmila S (2013) Isolation and identification of LDPE degrading fungi from municipal solid waste. EUROLAB, with its state-of-the-art accredited laboratories and expert team, provides precise and fast testing services within the scope of CEN TR 14823 test. Accessibility 97120. Complex polymer chains of polythene are converted to simple polymer chains by action of fungi (biodegradation). Biochim Biophys Acta 1620:17. Here's how you know Int J Appl Res 3(3):693695, Gautam R, Bassi AS, Yanful EK (2007) Candida rugosa lipase-catalyzed polyurethane degradation in aqueous medium. Even lipase CalB fromCandida antarcticawas also used in the PET degradation process (Carniel et al. In degradation of polyurethane, proteases are more effective than esterases (Ozsagiroglu et al. 2009). If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To be truly labeled biodegradable, the plastic must degrade into carbon dioxide, water, . Int J Biochem Mol Biol 1(1):3650, CAS Degrading polystyrene ability was identified inCephalosporium spp. The enzyme activity is mainly dependent on the solvent properties and the enzyme activity increases with polarity and decreases with the viscosity of the solvent in the biodegradation of polymers (Patel et al. Int J Sci Res Publ 3:15, Pereira EB, De Castro HF, De Moraes FF, Zanin GM (2001) Kinetic studies of lipase from Candida rugosa. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.09.005, Coe JM, Andersson S, Rogers DB (1997) Marine debris in the Caribbean Region. D H Y Yanto 1 and A Hidayat 2. Explanation: Biodegradation will be more for low molecular weights and less crystallinity. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. Radiat Phys Chem 125:134144, Byuntae L, Anthony LP, Alfred F, Theodore BB (1991) Biodegradation of degradable plastic polyethylene by Phanerocheate and Streptomyces species. 2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12223-018-0621-4, Webb JS, Nixon M, Eastwood IM, Greenhalgh M, Robson GD, Handley PS (2000) Fungal colonization and biodeterioration of plasticized polyvinyl chloride. volume9, Articlenumber:42 (2022) Photodegradation and thermo-oxidation are categorized under abiotic degradation, whereas biotic degradation involves the action of microbes. PubMed The biodegradation process depends on several factors such as microbial activity, the surface area of the polymer, temperature, pH, molecular Int J Mol Sci 10:37223742, Tokiwa Y, Calabia BP, Ugwu CU, Aiba S (2009) Biodegradability of plastics. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069386, Danso D, Chow J, Streit WR (2019) Plastics: environmental and bio technological perspectives on microbial degradation. In this plastic biodegradation, fungi play a pivotal role, it acts on plastics by secreting some degrading enzymes, i.e., cutinase`, lipase, and proteases, lignocellulolytic enzymes, and also the presence of some pro-oxidant ions can cause effective degradation. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! In aerobic biodegradation, the degradation involves in presence of oxygen which is also known as aerobic respiration. J Biotechnol 120:376386. To degrade these plastics, there are different methods, such as photodegradation, thermo-oxidative degradation, hydrolytic degradation, and biodegradation. Volatile fungal metabolites are responsible for various odors and may contribute to a "sick building syndrome" (SBS) with a negative effect on the heath of building. Microorganisms help in cleaning up the environment. Cite this article. The. Cerratia marcescens BLSP4, Bacillus subtilis BLSP4, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa BLSP4 degraded 38.3%, 52.6%, and 63.4% styrofoam, respectively. In; Ullmanns encyclopedia of industrial chemistry. PP is used in manufacturing rugs, mats, carpets, ropes, and chairs. However, considering their abundance in the environment and their specificity in attacking plastics, biodegradation of plastics by microorganisms and enzymes seems to be the most effective process. 11,33-37 In contrast to traditional plastics, biodegradable plastics can break down into low molecular weight compounds such as water, methane, and carbon dioxide by bacteria, fungi, and algae. PVC comes in two forms, i.e., rigid and flexible. Appl Environ Microbiol 58:32253232, Montazer Z, Habibi Najafi MB, Levin DB (2019) Microbial degradation of low-density polyethylene and synthesis of polyhydroxyalkanoate polymers. What are the 3 methods of biodegradation? These species include Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae, and Aspergillus flavus, abundantly found in garbage sites and soil. PLoS ONE 10:e0131773, Article Optimization of Polystyrene Biodegradation by. Besides, key areas for further exploration, such as the manipulation of microorganisms through molecular cloning, modification of enzymatic characteristics and metabolic pathway design, are also highlighted. Biomacromol 11(1):2028, Arutchelvi J, Sudhakar M, Arkatkar AD, Mukesh B, Sumit U, Parasu V (2021) Biodegradation of polyethylene and polypropylene. Aspergillus oryzae, C. antarctica, and Penicillium citrinumare among other fungal enzymes that have been investigated for activity on PET (Zimmermann and Billig 2010; Kawai et al. endobj The usage of polythene is increased at a rate of 12% annum and approximately 140 million tonnes of synthetic plastic polymers are produced worldwide annually (Roy et al. Keywords: To be truly labeled biodegradable, the plastic must degrade into carbon dioxide, water, biomass and / or mineral salts when exposed to air, moisture and microbes. In biodegradation, the process is initiated by micro-organisms, i.e., bacteria and fungi. 2011; Cosgrove et al. Aspergillus, Trichoderma, Paecelomyces, Penicillium, Alternaria, Fusarium(Loredo-Trevio et al. PubMed Toxins 10:112. Plastic Environ IntechOpen, Gorghiu LM, Jipa S, Zaharescu T, Setnescu R, Mihalcea I (2004) The effect of metals on thermal degradation of polyethylenes. It is formed mainly by nonspecific oxidoreductases, including enzymes, such as class II peroxidases (manganese peroxidase, lignin peroxidase, and versatile peroxidase), laccases, and unspecific peroxygenases. . Pure PVC is soluble in tetrahydrofuran and insoluble in alcohols. Fungi can also produce some surface-active proteins, i.e., hydrophobins to coat hyphae to hydrophobic substrates. Terms and Conditions, They are artificially cultivated on a suitable substrate, such as straw, husk, sugarcane residues, leaves, etc. Univ J Environ Res Technol 2:5864, Bo RK, Soo BK, Hyun AS, Tae KL (2019) Accelerating the biodegradation of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) using Bjerkandera adusta TBB-03 and Lignocellulose Substrates. Foam biodegradation is carried out by the enzymes associated with some microorganisms like bacteria and fungi (Gautam et al. 2004), these facilitate cleavage of molecules into smaller fragments containing hydrophilic oxygenated groups that can be easily degraded by microbes (Shang et al. Rep 2019 9 19 CrossRef 37 Yao C Xia W Dou M Du Y Wu J Oxidative degradation of from ENGLISH 111 at Central Piedmont Community College 2013). Aspergillus sp., Penicillium sp., and Fusarium spare used as biological agents to degrade PET and PS foam (Umamaheswari and Murali 2013). Biodegradation is defined as the method by which microbes like bacteria and fungi are employed for the breakdown of synthetic plastic waste. Plastic polymers are non-degradable solid wastes that have become a great threat to the whole world and degradation of these plastics would take a few decades. 7%, at a rate of ~7500 kg ha 1 respectively. Nevertheless, the distinct properties which make plastic desirable for our daily use also threaten our planet's sustainability. It utilizes molecular oxygen as a co-substrate and produces water and by-products (Nunes and Kunamneni 2018). 2022 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. J Chem Pharm Res 5(3):7881. J Photoch Photobio A 163:547556, Article In the present study, biodegradation of synthetic polymers obtained from Plastic bottle waste, has been carried out. K-/+N. 3. 5.2 Soil is an extremely species-rich source of inoculum for evaluation of the biodegradability of plastics in the environment. 1.1 This test method is designed to index plastic materials which are more or less biodegradable relative to a standard in aerobic activated-sludge-treatment systems. Google Scholar, Alariqi SAS, Pratheep Kumar A, Rao BSM, Singh RP (2006) Biodegradation of sterilised biomedical polyolefins under composting and fungal culture environments. Some fungi such asPlectosphaerella, Nectria, Neonectria, Phoma, and Alternariaalso showed their ability for PU biodegradation. 1998). Plastic polymers with different properties have been developed in the last 150 years to replace materials such as wood, glass and metals across various applications. Due to this plastic pollution in the marine environment minimum of 267 species are being affected which includes sea turtles (86%) and seabirds (44%) (Coe et al. Bioplastics have two attributes ( Penkhrue et al., 2015 ): (1) they are bio-based (a plastic derived from biological substances) and (2) biodegradable (plastic that can be degraded by a certain microorganism). Biodegradation of buried crude oil in soil microcosm by fungal co-culture. The extracellular enzymatic system consists of a hydrolytic system that produces hydrolases that are involved in polysaccharide degradation and the unspecific oxidative system involved in breaking down complex structures, such as lignin degradation (Snchez 2009). The increase in plastic demand leads to the overproduction of plastic products around the world. 1995). Appl Environ Microbiol 77:60766084, SanaSheik KR, Chandrashekar K, Swaroop HM (2015) Somashekarappa, Biodegradation of gamma irradiated low density polyethylene and polypropylene by endophytic fungi. Anaerobic fungi in the absence of oxygen utilize other sources as their electron acceptor, such as sulfate, nitrate, iron, manganese, and carbon dioxide for biodegradation (Alshehrei 2017). Sivan A (2011) New perspectives in plastic biodegradation. Brunner and his colleagues investigated the plastic-degrading capabilities of fungus that grows naturally on plastic litter that has accumulated in the ocean. Plastic Interactions with Pollutants and Consequences to Aquatic Ecosystems: What We Know and What We Do Not Know. Penicillium chrysogenumNS10 (KU559907),Penicillium oxalicumNS4 (KU559906) were identified for degrading HDPE and LDPE (Ojha et al. its rigid and strong polymer. The process of biodegradation can be divided into three stages: biodeterioration, . Appl Environ Microbiol 82:52255235. Journal of Applied Biology & Biotechnology, Plastics have largely supplanted natural materials such as paper, wood, and metal due to its cost effectiveness, high flexibility, durability, non-degradability, and fire resistance. 2000). 2018). Polythene is mostly used plastics in daily life due to its easy processing for products, such as plastic bags, plastic films, packing food materials, textiles (Arutchelvi et al. Strain S-2 was identified for its effective degradation of high molecular weight plastic, i.e., polylactic acid (PLA) based plastic (Gemeren et al. Biodegradation is the property of a material that can be completely converted into water, CO 2, and biomass through the action of microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria. According to Russell et al. <>>> How do microbes clean up the environment? Bioprocess. The intracellular enzymatic system acts as an internal mechanism for detoxification and plays a major role in fungal adaption (Jeon et al. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Before https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-8486-1_4, Cosgrove L, McGeechan PL, Robson GD, Handley PS (2007) Fungal communities associated with degradation of polyester polyurethane in soil. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. In: Drake HL (ed) Acetogenes. 4 0 obj The increase in plastic pollution greatly affects living organisms, biodegradation of plastics by fungi can help to decrease the problem. In the past few years, many techniques like landfilling, recycling, incineration, biodegradation, and degradation have been used to dispose of polyethylene waste. The authors have attempted to fill the research gaps by analyzing microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOCs) originating from representatives of the Basidiomycetes class that grow on wood-polymer composite (WPC . Appl Environ Microbiol 64:27942799, Vertommen MAME, Nierstrasz VA, van der Veer M, Warmoeskerken MMCG (2005) Enzymatic surface modification of poly(ethylene terephthalate). 2015) are some of the important fungal species which are producing proteases to degrade plastics. 1899), formation of carbon dioxide (Sturm test) are good indicators for polymer degradation and are the most often used methods to measure biodegradation in laboratory tests. The mushrooms grow on the surface of the substrate by absorbing the nutrients from the substrate. Polym Adv Technol 15:691700, Liebminger S, Eberl A, Sousa F, Heumann S, Fischer-Colbrie G, Cavaco-Paulo A et al (2007) Hydrolysis of PET and bis-(benzoyloxyethyl) terephthalate with a new polyesterase from Penicillium citrinum. Plastics are one of the synthetic polymers or man-made polymers [1]. Polym Degrad Stabil 48:275289, Whitney PJ (1996) A comparison of two methods for testing defined formulations of PVC for resistance to fungal colonisation with two methods for the assessment of their biodegradation. Miloloa M, Uki , Cvetni M, Bolana T, Kui Grgi D. Polymers (Basel). Types of Plastic Arch Biochem Biophys 166(2):599607. Gloeophyllum striatum DSM 9592andGloeophyllum trabeum DSM 1398strains causing almost 50% reduction in molecular weight of polystyrene. Plastic polymers are non-degradable solid wastes that have become a great threat to the whole world and degradation of these plastics would take a few decades. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 167:15951602. Polym Degrad Stab 81:441452, Brunner I, Fischer M, Rthi J, Stierli B, Frey B (2018) Ability of fungi isolated from plastic debris floating in the shoreline of a lake to degrade plastics. J Biomed Mater Res 21:231246, Pramila R, Vijaya Ramesh K (2011) Biodegradation of low density polyethylene (LDPE) by fungi isolated from municipal landfill area. ISBN978-0-471-49752-3, Karich A, Ullrich R, Scheibner K, Hofrichter M (2017) Fungal unspecific peroxygenases oxidize the majority of organic EPA priority pollutants. In particular, the proposed synthetic route allows to easily and, There are a variety of amino acids and polysaccharides contained in Pleurotus eryngii that can improve immunity and prevent cancer in humans. The term "biodegradable" refers to materials that can disintegrate or break down naturally into biogases and biomass (mostly carbon dioxide and water) as a result of being exposed to a microbial environment and humidity [ 16]. 2008 Oct;108(2):131-9. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2008.07.025. Google Scholar, Ganesh P, Dineshraj D, Yoganathan K (2017) Production and screening of depolymerising enzymes by potential bacteria and fungi isolated from plastic waste dump yard sites. Phanerochaete chrysosporium, andTrametes versicolorshowed effectivedegradation of high-molecular-weight polyethylene, where MnP/Manganese peroxidases is the key enzyme in polyethylene degradation (Iiyoshi et al. Esterases are hydrolase enzymes that split esters into alcohols and acids by the addition of water molecules. Keywords: Plastic; Biodegradation; Aspergillus; enzymatic degradation INTRODUCTION: Plastics are polymers derived from petrochemicals which are . 2022 Jun 7;12(6):798. doi: 10.3390/biom12060798. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 105:2129, Snchez C (2009) Lignocellulosic residues: biodegradation and bioconversion by fungi. Studying the biodegradation of plastic in mature composts will help in understanding the eventual fate of such plastic waste.5 Plastics can be degraded by chemical, thermal, photo or . Polyvinylchloride is a strong polymer, composed of repeating chloroethyl units (Fischer et al. isolated from plastic dumped soils and their ability to degrade low molecular weight PVC. KEY WORDS: PHB; fungi; biodegradation. The process becomes more effective when photodegradation and thermo-oxidative degradation is followed by biodegradation, because as by photodegradation and thermo-oxidative degradation, the plastic debris will be broken-down from complex to simple material so biodegradation on such material will be easy and does not require much time. Polyethylene is chemically represented as (C2H4) n. PE is a combination of polymers of ethylene with different values of n. They are low-density polyethylene and high-density polyethylene. Open Access Sci Rep 1:14, Bholay AD, Borkhataria V, Jadhav U, Palekar S, Dhalkari V, Nalawade PM et al (2012) Bacterial lignin peroxidase: a tool for biolecching and biodegradation of industrial effluents. were also identified for their ability to degrade PET and PS foam (Umamaheswari and Murali 2013)Curvularia specieshyphae had adhered to and penetrated the polymers structure (Motta et al. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjm-2018-0335, Motta O, Proto A, De Carlo F, De Caro F, Santoro E, Brunetti L, Capunzo M (2009) Utilization of chemically oxidized polystyrene as co-substrate by filamentous fungi. Microbial depolymerases, hydrolases, and peroxidases are the key enzymes in biodegradation. Therefore, the polymers slowly get depolymerized and degradation will be compiled by mineralization process, where H2O (water), CO2 (carbon dioxide), CH2 (methane) are end products (Frazer 1994; Montazer et al. Myco-degradation of microplastics: an account of identified pathways and analytical methods for their determination. 2019). but only against LDPE and acrylic polymers. 1997). J Basic Microbiol 54(1):1827, Article Can J Microbiol 65:111. Several studies have investigated plastic biodegradation. In this experimental study, bacterium and fungus was isolated from the marine environment and was used for degradation of plastic waste strips. recent work has included studies of the distribution of synthetic polymer-degrading fungi in the environment, the isolation of new strain myceliophthora sp.for biodegradation, the discovery of. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. CAS Google Scholar, Phua SK, Castillo E, Anderson JM, Hiltner A (1987) Biodegradation of a polyurethane in vitro. Abd El-Rehim HA, Hegazy El-Sayed A, Ali AM, Rabie AM (2004) Synergistic effect of combining UV-sunlightsoil burial treatment on the biodegradation rate of LDPE/starch blends. The review provides eminent information on various fungi which are involved in degrading different types of plastic polymers, and specific degrading enzymes produced by various fungi which are involved in the biodegradation mechanism. Hence, the biological agent utilizes the synthetic polymer as a substrate for. Disposing of the plastic waste in oceans leads accumulation of toxic chemicals, such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs), nonylphenol (NP), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), polybrominated diphenyl esters (PBDE), and bisphenol A (BPA) (Bryant et al. Environ Sci Processes Impacts 17:15131521, Glaser JA (2019) Biological degradation of polymers in the Environment. Proteases are enzymes that cleave the long peptide chain to short peptides or break down proteins to polypeptide chains by hydrolysis this process is termed to be proteolysis. 2022 Nov;45(11):1865-1878. doi: 10.1007/s00449-022-02793-x. Currently, the research on the degradation of plastics is focused on the characterization of microorganisms capable of degradation of fossil-based plastics in the atmosphere, development of new enzyme-based degradation strategies, and synthesis of copies of genes that encode biodegradation enzymes (Vijaya and Reddy 2008 ). Wax worm saliva and the enzymes therein are the key to polyethylene degradation by Galleria mellonella. Some yeast-like fungiRhodotorula aurantiaca and Kluyveromyces sppalso showed some degrading properties towards polyvinylchloride. Fusarium graminearumshowed polyethylene degradation by producing peroxidase (Ganesh et al. BIOM3, and Pestalotiopsis sp. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242420701379734, Loredo-Trevio A, Garca G, Velasco-Tllez A, Rodrguez-Herrera R, Aguilar CN (2011) Polyurethane foam as substrate for fungal strains. 2018 Sep;102(18):7669-7678. doi: 10.1007/s00253-018-9195-y. SG reviewed overall manuscript preparation and supported the study. Biodegradation of synthetic plastics is a very slow process that also involves environmental factors and the action of wild, bioresourcesbioprocessing.springeropen.com, Plastic waste has a negative impact on marine ecosystems and the quantity of this source of anthropogenic pollution continues to increase. 2015). Cookies policy. Plastic wastes have adversely affected life on earth, primarily through their undesirable accumulation in landfills, leaching into the soil, increased greenhouse gas emission, etc. Biodegradation: Biodegradation is the process by which organic substances are decomposed by micro-organisms (mainly aerobic bacteria) into simpler substances such as carbon dioxide, water and ammonia. 2004). New plastic-degrading microbes have recently been found thanks to advancements in biotechnology. The .gov means its official. Google Scholar, Arefian M, Zia M, Tahmourespour A et al (2013) Polycarbonate biodegradation by isolated molds using clear-zone and atomic force microscopic methods. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. Some fungi like Aspergillus and Rhizopus have also shown limited efficacy (< 30% in Aspergillus sp. This test method determines the degree of aerobic biodegradation by measuring evolved carbon dioxide as a function of time that the plastic is exposed to soil. AMB Expr 5:10, Zafar U, Houlden A, Robson GD (2013) Fungal communities associated with the biodegradation of polyester polyurethane buried under compost at different temperatures. Biores Technol 96(12):13571363, Yamamoto-Tamura K, Hiradate S, Watanabe T et al (2015) Contribution of soil esterase to biodegradation of aliphatic polyester agricultural mulch film in cultivated soils. Alternative ways to limit the accumulation of plastic wastehave been developed and applied from a variety of perspectives, including from a microbiological standpoint. Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, and Fusarium graminearumproduce manganese peroxidase, lignin peroxidase and these enzymes induce the biodegradation of PCB (polyethylene carry bag). Cutinases are produced byFusarium solani(Alisch-Mark et al. In: Lowenstein JM (ed) Methods in enzymology. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4165(02)00510-X, Hock OG, Lum HW, De Qin D, Kee WK, Shing WL (2019) The growth and laccase activity ofedible mushroomsinvolved inplastics degradation, Researchgate. Academic Press, New York, p 652, Koutny M, Lemaire J, Delort AM (2006) Biodegradation of polyethylene films with pro-oxidant additives. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-022-00532-4, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-022-00532-4. Int Biodeterior Biodeg Radation 88:8390, Romero E, Speranza M, Garca-Guinea J, Martnez T (2007) Mara Jess Martnez, an anamorph of the white-rot fungus Bjerkandera adusta capable of colonizing and degrading compact disc components. Google Scholar, Butnaru E, Darie-Ni RN, Zaharescu T, Balae T, Tnase C, Hitruc G et al (2016) Gamma irradiation assisted fungal degradation of the polypropylene/biomass composites. Plastic waste has gained remarkable research attention due to its accumulation, associated environmental issues, and impact on living organisms. Polyethylene and polypropylene represent about 92% of the synthetic plastics produced, and they are used for the production of plastic bags, disposable containers, bottles, packaging materials, etc. The level of biodegradation of LDPE sheets with bacterial and fungal inoculums from different sampling points of Dandora dumpsite was evaluated under laboratory conditions. Biodegradation involves biodeterioration, fragmentation, assimilation and mineralisation. 2007) as PUR degraders. Part of / Progress in Polymer Science 71 (2017) 144-189 1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enzmictec.2007.02.012, Ojha N, Pradhan N, Singh S, Barla A, Shrivastava A, Khatua P, Rai V, Bose S (2017) Evaluation of HDPE and LDPE degradation by fungus, implemented by statistical optimization. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. The pro-oxidants are transient metal ions, added in form of stearate or other organic ligand complexes, mostly stearates of Fe3+, Mn2+ (Jakubowicz 2003), or Co2+ (Weiland et al. IJBT 7(1):922, Awaja F, Pavel D (2005) Recycling of PET. Biodegradation occurs when microorganisms colonise the surface of the polymer and secrete enzymes that break down the macromolecules (Nayak, 1999). Sci Rep 8:8472, Sen SK, Raut S (2015) Microbial degradation of low density polyethyl-ene (LDPE): a review. FOIA 2008). 2015). 1991). Required fields are marked *. 2022 Dec;33(6):529-556. doi: 10.1007/s10532-022-10001-6. The growth of many fungi can also cause small-scale swelling and bursting, as the fungi penetrate the polymer solids (Griffin 1980). PubMed Central Fungi are well known for their superior abilities to produce a well-built variety of ex-tracellular proteins and other organic compounds [27,28]. The current methods for eliminating these wastes (incineration, landfilling, and recycling) come at massive costs, are unsustainable, and put more burden on our environment. Srikanth, M., Sandeep, T.S.R.S., Sucharitha, K. et al. Biodegradable bioplastics are fully degraded by microorganisms, without leaving visible toxic remainders. Biotechnol Adv 27:85194, Schwartz M, Perrot T, Aubert E, Dumaray S, Favier F, Grardin P, Morel-Rouhier M, Mulliert G, Saiag F, Didierjean C, Gelhaye E (2018) Molecular recognition of wood polyphenols by phase II detoxification enzymes of the white rot Trametes versicolor. Laccase can also involve in the oxidation of the hydrocarbon backbone of polyethylene (Sivan 2011). J Macromol Sci Chem 26(1989):10231032, Shah AA, Hasan F, Hameed A, Ahmed S (2008) Biological degradation of plastics: a comprehensive review. White rot fungiPleurotus ostreatus, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, andTrametes versicolor, and the brown-rot fungiGloeophyllum trabeumwere capable of depolymerization of polystyrene when coincubated together with lignin (Krueger et al. The enormous rise in the production of plastics causes a, In this work, a novel one-pot synthesis of polymeric hydrogels (HGs) based on isocyanate click chemistry is proposed and evaluated. The figure is created according to the data from OECD [1]. 2006; ONeill et al. 1991). Some enzymes in fungi help to disintegrate the polymers into simpler components ( monomers and dimers ). Sci Rep 9:16038. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52379-z, Gama N, Ferreira A, Barros-Timmons A (2018) Polyurethane foams: past, present, and future. Biocatal Biotransform 25:171177. ASM J Appl Environ Microbiol 66(8), Wei R, Oeser T, Then J, Kuhn N, Barth M, Schmidt J, Zimmermann W (2014) Functional characterization and structural modeling of synthetic polyester-degrading hydrolases from Thermomonospora curvata. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines it as, "A process by which microbial organisms transform or alter (through metabolic or enzymatic action) the structure of chemicals introduced into the environment." In general, this biodegradation of plastics involves the growth of fungi on the surface of plastic, where plastic is consumed as a food source by the fungi under the influence of environmental factors, such as temperature and pH. View 4 excerpts, references methods and background, By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our. Polypropylene is also referred to as polypropene, a thermoplastic polymer. Plastic Biodegradation Potential of Fungi Biodegradation is the degradation of compounds and substrates mediated by living organisms, most commonly microorganisms. Cladosporium pseudo cladosporioides, Cladosporium tenuissimum, Cladosporium asperulatum, Cladosporium montecillanum, Aspergillus fumigatus, Penicillium chrysogenumwere also reported for degrading PUR (lvarez-Barragn et al. 2013). Adv Biosci Biotechnol 2(2):5258, Mathur G, Prasad R (2012) Degradation of polyurethane by Aspergillus flavus (ITCC 6051) isolated from soil. 1.2 This test method is designed to be applicable to all plastic materials that are not inhibitory to the bacteria present in the activated sludge. Furthermore, plastics, especially in the microplastic form, have also been found to interfere with chemical interaction between marine organisms, to cause intrinsic toxicity by leaching, and by absorbing persistent organic contaminants as well as pathogens. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies J Microbiol Biotech Res 1(4):131136, Raaman N, Rajitha N, Jayshree A, Jegadeesh R (2012) Biodegradation of plastic by Aspergillus spp. Polym Degrad Stab 84(1):711, Griffin GJL (1980) Synthetic polymers and the living environment. The Indian Cow. Biodegradation of plastic polymers by fungi: a brief review. Wiley, Germany, Frazer AC (1994) O-methylation and other transformations of aromatic compounds by acetogenic bacteria. The formation of mushrooms from the plastic as a substrate is a very new approach to control plastic pollution, and the productivity of mushrooms can be increased by altering the composition of the substrate (Luz et al. Biodegradation. Braz J Microbiol 46(2):337346, rejber M, Navrtilov V, Paloncov M, Bazgier V, Berka K, Anzenbacher P, Otyepka M (2018) Membrane-attached mammalian cytochromes P450: an overview of the membranes effects on structure, drug binding, and interactions with redox partners. 2012). Int J Hyg Environ Health 212(1):6166, Munari (2019) Enzymatic hydrolysis of poly (1,4-butylene 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylate) (PBTF) and poly(1,4-butylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate) (PBF) films: a comparison of mechanisms, Environ Int 130: 104852. Biodegradation occurs through the action of bacteria, fungi, and yeast, which produce enzymes that cleave the plastics' polymeric chains [ 12 ]. In: Coe JM, Rogers DB (eds) Marine debris. 2013). The oxidation or hydrolysis by the enzyme creates functional groups that improve the hydrophilicity of polymers, and consequently degrade the high molecular weight polymer into low molecular weight. By oxidation/hydrolysis enzyme improves the hydrophilicity of polymers and consequently degrade the high molecular weight polymer into low molecular weight. Biodegradation of plastic polymers by fungi: a brief review, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-022-00532-4, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2016.07.023, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.09.005, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-8486-1_4, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069386, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2009.07.008, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52379-z, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10529-007-9354-1, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4165(02)00510-X, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-019-09717-y, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.03.012, https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-9861(75)90425-7, https://doi.org/10.1080/10242420701379734, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-012-9572-4, https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-805419-2.00007-1, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enzmictec.2007.02.012, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2005.06.015, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12223-018-0621-4, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted CYP contains three cofactors (NADPH+, H+, FAD, and Heme) and two enzymes (NADPH: CYP reductase and cytochrome P-450 hydrolase). Google Scholar, Dashtban M, Schraft H, Syed TA (2010) Fungal biodegradation and enzymatic modification of lignin. TSRSS wrote a part of the manuscript and polished the manuscript along with reviewing. Cold-Adapted Fungi: Evaluation and Comparison of Their Habitats, Molecular Adaptations and Industrial Applications. Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Pleurotus ostreatusand S22 showed a high capacity for lignin degradation at pH 9.011. Folia Microbiol. Degradation of plastics and plastic-degrading bacteria in cold marine habitats. (Pereira et al. 2015; Milstein et al. J Environ Chem Eng 3:462473, Seymour RB (1989) Polymer science before and after 1899: notable developments during the lifetime of Maurtis Dekkar. 2008). J Biotechnol 143:207212. Hence, in the light of recent literature, this review emphasises the multifaceted roles played by microorganisms in this process. Polym Degrad Stab 93:19171922, Russell JR (2011) Biodegradation of polyester polyurethane by endophytic fungi. Even more damaging is their impact on the aquatic ecosystems as they cause entanglement, ingestion and intestinal blockage in aquatic animals. CAS Toxicology. In general, this biodegradation of plastics involves the growth of fungi on the surface of plastic, where plastic is consumed as a food source by the fungi under the influence of environmental factors, such as temperature and pH. Mineralization: In biology, mineralization refers to a process where an inorganic substance precipitates in an organic matrix. Polymers 2022, 14, 4996 2 of 30 Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 39 Figure 1. Phanerochaete chrysosporiumNCIM 1170 a white-rot fungus showed degrading properties towards polycarbonates (Artham and Doble 2010). 2009;52:233242. The results suggested that polyethylene was not degraded by any strain. %PDF-1.5 Insight is provided into the mechanism and general pathway of fungal-mediated microplastic degradation, and analytical techniques for the monitoring of MPs degradation along with the roadblocks and future perspectives have been discussed. Biodegradation of plastic polymers has been one of the current focussed areas of research on solving plastic pollution. Biotechnol Adv 31:17541767. Plastic is a naturally refractory polymer that has the tendency to linger in the environment formany years after it is released. 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